Traffic chaos during the BJP’s demonstration over the women’s reservation bill in Mumbai's Worli area prompted an irate woman to confront Maharashtra Minister Girish Mahajan, blaming him for the snarls. The incident occurred on Tuesday (April 21
Outgoing Apple, Inc. CEO Tim Cook oversaw a period where the company sank far deeper roots in the Indian market than had been done in the decades prior. Most notably, he presided over the firm’s supply chain expansion, during which it set up iPhone assembly operations in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
West Bengal polls: Polling for the 2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly elections will be held in two phases on April 23 and 29, with counting of votes on May 4. West Medinipur: Union Home Minister on Tuesday launched a sharp attack on West Bengal Chief Minister
The Jharkhand Academic Council (JAC) is likely to announce the results for the Class 10 (Matric) and Class 12 (Intermediate) board examinations for the 2025–2026 academic session. According to board officials and reports, the JAC Board has completed the process of preparing the Jharkhand 10th
The Supreme Court on Tuesday issued notice on a public interest litigation challenging the validity of the 2008 National Investigation Agency Act, Live Law reported. The Act set up the National Investigation Agency in 2008 and contains a list of scheduled offences that it has the power to
Woman gives 5 reasons she’ll never return to a corporate job even with 2x salaryA Dubai-based woman has explained why she will never return to a corporate job, even if her pay were to be doubled. Updated on: Apr 22, 2026 11:45 AM IST By Sanya Jain Share via Copy link A Dubai-based woman has
Rajasthan Royals wicket-keeper Dhruv Jurel, who effected a stunning stumping of Kolkata Knight Riders batter Cameron Green in the IPL on Sunday (April 19, 2026), said he was grateful to be working with the legendary Sri Lankan gloveman Kumar Sangakkara.Rajasthan Royals wicket-keeper Dhruv Jurel
The Congress said that Opposition leader Rahul Gandhi’s visit to West Bengal on Thursday to campaign for the Assembly elections had to be cancelled after the administration allegedly denied permission, The Telegraph reported. Gandhi was to address a rally in Kolkata and another in Serampore
Beads, arms and cloth: How 19th-century African consumers shaped global trade
A dynamic new “consumer class” emerging from Africa is attracting international attention. With the prospect of rising incomes and a young population, international consulting firms see the continent as the next frontier for consumer goods. Global entrepreneurs even warn of the increasing savviness of African buyers.
But the influence of African consumers on global markets is far from a new thing. In the 1800s, the continent's consumer demand called the tune for European factories.
We're a team of economic and social historians, anthropologists, and African studies specialists. Our research project investigates the roots of these dynamics.
Focusing on the African demand for goods like arms, beads and cloth, our research calls into question the Eurocentric idea that Africa was just a supplier of cheap labour and raw materials before the “Scramble for Africa” by colonial powers.
Instead, in the 1800s, the continent was a key driver of industrial production, compelling manufacturers to tailor their goods to African preferences.
This challenges the conventional view of globalisation as a flow of goods and ideas from dominant economies to so-called peripheral regions. In fact globalisation has always been a connected process – one in which African consumers, though often overlooked, played a decisive role in shaping global markets.
Analysis of the arms trade takes us to the Congo River estuary in the late precolonial era. Before the late 1800s and colonialism, this region was free of direct European political control.
The illegal slave trade lasted at least until the mid-1850s, when the export of legitimate goods finally began to gather momentum. From roughly the 1850s, one of the products most consistently favoured by consumers in the Congo estuary was the so-called “trade gun”.
These rugged, muzzle-loading muskets were deemed outdated by European manufacturers and traders. In the Congo estuary these firearms remained in high demand.
Trade guns could be flintlocks (using a flint to ignite gunpowder) or percussion guns (using a small, explosive cap to ignite it). Flintlocks were more popular because flintstones were more readily available in Africa.
Moreover, smoothbore muzzle-loaders, commonly made from “soft” wrought iron rather than “hard” steel, were not only cheaper but also a more accessible technology than rifles for African consumers. Although flintlocks were sometimes not effective for big-game hunting, they had substantial military value.
Understanding the role of these weapons in African history, however, requires looking beyond just their function. Imported firearms were also commonly given symbolic meanings shaped by local norms and power structures.
For example, among Kikongo speakers in the lower Congo, gunfire was used as a sign of rejoicing during celebrations and funerals. Noise was believed to drive away bad spirits and aid passage into the spirit world.
Although the gun trade in the lower Congo is not always easy to quantify, it is documented, for example, that the Nieuwe Afrikaansche Handels Vennootschap imported an annual average of about 24,000 guns between 1884 and 1888. The majority of these were discarded French percussion guns that had been modified into flintlocks in Liège.
The development of the arms trade in the lower Congo also mirrors broader changes within the European firearms industry. African consumer demand was not just driven by European industrial output, but was rather an active force that shaped and sustained global economic integration throughout the 1800s.
Venetian glass bead producers were well aware that their specialised industry depended on demand from Africa and Asia. It is almost impossible to find out exactly how many glass beads were poured into the African continent in the 19th century. Glass beads went through many different hands (in many different ports) before they reached the shores of Africa, and the available information on Venetian production is not consistent.
Historians have shown that, during the 1800s, beads produced in Venice were a key commodity exchanged for ivory along the east African caravan routes connecting the Swahili coast to the Great Lakes. These routes were established by Arab traders and Nyamwezi traders (from today's Tanzania) on expeditions financed by Gujarati merchants from India.
As demand for ivory grew in European and American markets, these traders began penetrating deeper into the continent to discover new sources of elephant tusks and rhino horns. They established new market centres in the process.
Glass beads were portable and relatively cheap. This made them especially suitable as a form of money in everyday transactions. Beads had a major importance in securing food for caravan porters. Bringing the wrong type of beads could spell disaster for an expedition. This required an updated knowledge of the kinds of beads that were more in demand along specific routes.
Through the caravan leaders, information was gathered by European agents in major commercial hubs such as Zanzibar. This was mailed or telegraphed to their companies' headquarters, allowing producers to respond to demand as promptly as possible.
Today, sample cards displaying the most requested kinds of glass beads, preserved in European and American museums, are the most tangible product of this information chain.
African demand also influenced technological innovation. On the coast of east Africa and in Sudan, people eagerly imported millions of yards of American unbleached cotton cloth. This helped build the fortunes of US industries – so much so that “merikani” (from “American”) became a general term for this product – and, later, of Indian manufacturers.
Its spread, however, was limited by transport costs. Ethiopian markets were supplied mainly by local production, with a robust tradition of cotton spinning and weaving. The cloth was distinctively white and soft – praised by travellers as comparable to the finest European textiles. In Ethiopia, the only clear technological advantage enjoyed by western producers was dyes, especially after the introduction of synthetic colours in the 1870s.
Ethiopian weavers eagerly sought coloured yarn from Europe and India to pair with their own white cloth. This demand stimulated the spread of new dying technology abroad. The situation changed significantly after the unification of Ethiopia under Menelik II, whose reign brought stability and infrastructure development.
Coarse, unbleached cotton became widely available even in the interior, offering a cheap and easily washable option for ordinary people: 12 million square yards from the US were imported in 1905-1906 alone. Meanwhile, Ethiopian elites continued to favour local cotton but complemented it with imported accessories like felt hats and umbrellas. Coloured cloth, once a luxury, became a popular consumer good.
The story of how arms, glass beads and cloth were commercialised in Africa and how production and distribution had to adapt to the continent's needs provides a more nuanced picture of how global trade as we know it took shape.
Our research emphasises that globalisation was not ignited in the global north, but depended on consumers located far from the centres of production.
Alessandro De Cola is Univertsity Assistant (Postdoc), Universität Wien; Università di Bologna.
Giorgio Tosco is Research Fellow, History Department, Universität Trier.
Mariella Terzoli is Postdoctoral Research Fellow.
This article was first published on The Conversation.
Source: Scroll
Related Posts: Target new CEO Michael Fiddelke’s stunning rise from Intern to boss revealed Indian founder looks for intern for ‘11 am to 11 pm’ schedule for ₹1L stipend Man trained intern for 6 months who later became his boss with double salary Intern receives stern warning from HR for sleeping in office premises Maintain dynamic equity allocation as trade deals improve earnings visibility iPhone 18 Pro leak points to Dynamic Island changes and camera upgrade BTS’ Kim Namjoon reveals how his dynamic with the members has shifted now In current dynamic situation Preity Zinta Embraces A Dynamic Fitness Makeover at 50 Aman Gupta, founder of consumer electronics brand Boat, to launch new venture
Shah Rukh Khan stayed calm amid fan frenzy during visit to Ajmer dargah, reveals bodyguardBodyguard Yusuf Ibrahim revealed that he had accompanied Shah Rukh Khan to the Ajmer dargah on a Friday, but the visit quickly turned chaotic. Apr 22, 2026
1 hours ago
Karnataka recently rolled out a draft policy to alter the taxation structure on liquor sold in the state. The policy proposed taxing liquor based on the actual volume of alcohol present in it — or the Alcohol-in-Beverage taxation system, a popular practice in western countries
1 hours ago
Inherited peripheral neuropathies (IPN) are cruel genetic diseases that affect around 1 in 2,500 individuals. A person affected by IPN develops high foot arches, curled toes, thin calves, and walks awkwardly or trips. Their fingers may become clawed and, because they lose sensation
1 hours ago
Kedarnath Dham portals open today, CM Dhami offers prayersChar Dham Yatra began on April 19, with the opening of the portals of Gangotri and Yamunotri shrines in Uttarakhand on the occasion of Akshaya Tritiya Published on: Apr 22, 2026 1:33 PM IST By HT Correspondent
1 hours ago
No, ICSE Class 10 Result 2026 will not be declared today, April 22, despite the false claim floating on social media platforms. The Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE) told Times of India (TOI) dismissed the rumour and said that the board has not made any announcement
1 hours ago
Kevin Warsh has clashed with Democratic senators during a fiery confirmation hearing to decide whether he should be installed as Federal Reserve chairman. From suggestions that he would be President Donald Trump's "sock puppet" to questions over his links to paedophile financier Jeffrey Epstein
1 hours ago
Editorial independence is core to our work. Some links may earn us a commission, without influencing our opinions.Panasonic ACs are trending this summer! Grab top deals with up to 30% discountPanasonic ACs are becoming a top choice this summer. Check out the latest deals, key features
1 hours ago
A Mumbai woman has gone viral after angrily confronting Maharashtra minister Girish Mahajan over a massive traffic jam allegedly caused by a political rally in Worli, with many on social media calling her the voice of ordinary commuters. The clip, shared by X user Prashant Dhumal
1 hours ago
IIT Kharagpur professor invites students to his birthday party, internet enviousAn IIT Kharagpur student left the internet surprised—and a little envious—after sharing a video of a professor’s birthday celebration with his class. Updated on: Apr 22
1 hours ago
The Iran war has caused a significant drop in global oil demand, with consumption plummeting due to supply disruptions and record-high fuel prices. While this short-term destruction accelerates the shift to EVs and biofuels, the conflict's longer-term impact may paradoxically boost oil demand
1 hours ago
Global oil prices edged lower in Asia on Wednesday after US President Donald Trump said he would extend a ceasefire with Iran until peace talks between the two countries have progressed. He added that the US will continue to blockade Iran's ports until Tehran presents a "unified proposal"
1 hours ago
Abhishek Sharma smashed an explosive century on Tuesday. He scored an unbeaten 135 runs from 68 balls. This helped Sunrisers Hyderabad defeat Delhi Capitals by 47 runs in the Indian Premier League. Sharma's performance was the fifth-highest individual score in the tournament's history
1 hours ago
One year after the terror attack in Pahalgam on 22 April 2025, which claimed 26 lives in a targeted assault on civilians, the meadows of Kashmir seem to have begun their slow healing with a return to tourism. Yet for the families left behind, time has not healed in the way society often expects
1 hours ago
At least 13 people have been killed in an explosion at a firecracker factory in India's southern state of Kerala, officials say. The incident took place in Thrissur, where around 40 people were believed to be assembling firecrackers in a cluster of sheds for an upcoming festival
1 hours ago
Editorial independence is core to our work. Some links may earn us a commission, without influencing our opinions.Stay safe and protected this summer with these SPF-infused skin and hair productsKeep your skin and hair protected with these SPF-infused products. Published on: Apr 22
1 hours ago
David Wilcock death rumors: Rep. Anna Paulina Luna sounds the alarm about dead, missing US scientists, ‘Something is up’Rep. Anna Paulina Luna has sounded the alarm about an increasing number of missing and dead scientists amid rumors that David Wilcock has died by suicide. Updated on: Apr 22
1 hours ago
The protests by workers across Indian cities through early April are an urgent signal that survival is impossible on wages that hover around the bare legal minimum. Domestic, gig and delivery workers to industrial labourers in the Delhi-National Capital Region protested demanding an increase in
1 hours ago
Walk into most classrooms today, and you will find students who can define empathy, write about conflict, and explain decision-making. But ask them to navigate a difficult conversation, respond to peer pressure, or articulate what they feel; the confidence disappears
1 hours ago
V. Muthuraja returns to contest Pudukkottai seat for DMK in 2026 Tamil Nadu electionsV. Muthuraja, a key DMK politician from Tamil Nadu, won the Pudukkottai seat in 2021 with 85,802 votes, aims to defend his position in the 2026 elections. Published on: Apr 22
1 hours ago
Learn how to search your name in the voter list 2026, verify details in the electoral roll, and download your Voter ID card online via NVSP and ECI portals. Step-by-step guide with direct links and troubleshooting tips. With Assembly elections in Tamil Nadu and West Bengal approaching
1 hours ago
Nineteen hundred exhibitors from Italy and around the world. 700 designers, all under the age of 35. Over 169,000 sq.m. of exhibition. The numbers give a sense of the scale of this year’s Salone del Mobile.Milano, the landmark European furniture and interiors design trade fair that attracts a
1 hours ago
Taiwan President Lai Ching-te has cancelled a presidential trip to the southern African nation of Eswatini, accusing Beijing of putting pressure on other countries to bar his aircraft from flying over their territories. Seychelles, Mauritius and Madagascar revoked Lai's overflight permits after
1 hours ago
International benchmark Brent crude futures traded at $99.29 per barrel, up 0.82 per cent, while US West Texas Intermediate (WTI) rose 1.15 per cent to $90.71. Mumbai: Global crude oil prices edged higher to nearly $100 a barrel on Wednesday as traders and investors analysed the outlook for US-Iran
1 hours ago
A notorious North Korean hacking group is likely behind the theft of nearly $300 million in cryptocurrency over the weekend, an affected party has said, in the biggest known crypto heist this year.It is the latest such incident linked to North Korea
1 hours ago
Diet Coke has become an unexpected casualty of supply chain disruptions linked to the ongoing tensions involving Iran, with several Indian cities witnessing stock-outs of the popular sugar-free beverage due to a severe shortage of aluminium cans. The crunch has also affected other canned drinks
1 hours ago
April 22 Birthday Horoscope: Here's what the tarot cards have in store for youIf your birthday falls on April 22, here’s what your year ahead looks like, as per Tarot. Published on: Apr 22, 2026 11:00 AM IST By Kishori Sud Share via Copy link If you were born on April 22
1 hours ago
The Assam Higher Secondary Education Council (AHSEC) is expected to announce the Assam HS Result 2026 for Class 12 students in the coming days. Officials are likely to confirm the exact date and time of the result declaration soon. Once the results are released
1 hours ago
